Membrane technologies for endocrine-disrupting chemical removal: A state-of-the-art review on materials, mechanistic insights, and future directions

Abstract

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) pose critical environmental and public health challenges due to their persistence, bioactive nature and widespread presence in water systems. Membrane technologies have emerged as advanced solutions to effectively mitigate these contaminants. However, their optimal performance remains critically dependent on membrane selection, modification strategies, and a profound understanding of underlying separation and degradation mechanisms. This comprehensive review critically analyzes the state-of-the-art in membrane-based technologies, including microfiltration (MF), ultrafiltration (UF), nanofiltration (NF), reverse osmosis (RO), forward osmosis (FO), membrane bioreactors (MBRs), and advanced specialized membrane systems. Each membrane class is systematically evaluated for its efficacy in EDC removal, focusing on cutting-edge material innovations, hybrid configurations, and operational strategies. The mechanisms driving EDC rejection (size exclusion, electrostatic repulsion (Donnan exclusion), hydrophobic partitioning, adsorption, and catalytic degradation) are examined at a fundamental level, supported by detailed molecular and physicochemical insights. Notably, recent breakthroughs, including nanoconfined catalytic membranes, electro-assisted reactive systems, and biomimetic membrane architectures, are highlighted, offering significant enhancements in selectivity, permeability, fouling resistance, and catalytic performance. Critical research gaps are identified, emphasizing the need for targeted membrane nanoarchitecture engineering, precise molecular-level control of surface interactions, scalable catalytic integration, and robust operational performance under realistic environmental conditions. Finally, strategic future directions are proposed, envisioning transformative advancements through synergistic integration of nanotechnology, computational modeling, and sustainable membrane designs, ensuring that membrane technologies remain at the forefront in addressing emerging threats posed by endocrine-disrupting chemicals.