Nanomaterials-mediated electrochemical detection of neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin for chronic kidney disease: Advances, challenges, and future prospects

Abstract

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is characterized by a gradual and permanent deterioration in kidney function, resulting in disruption of the body's internal balance. Traditional diagnostic methods based on serum metabolites often suffer from inaccuracy for CKD diagnosis due to interference from factors such as age, gender, and comorbidities. Neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) is considered an effective clinical marker for early and reliable CKD diagnosis due to its rapid elevation in both serum and urine following renal tubular injury. Among various diagnostic strategies, electrochemical (EC) sensing stands out for its high sensitivity, reproducibility, and suitability for complex biological matrices. The integration of nanomaterials (NMs) with EC platforms further enhances detection performance, enabling precise, real-time monitoring of NGAL levels. This review systematically assesses recent progress in EC-based NGAL biosensors, compares NGAL with other CKD biomarkers, and highlights key design parameters, current limitations, and future opportunities for clinical translation. It specifically presents the unique relevance of NGAL for early CKD diagnosis, followed by a brief discussion on the distinctive advantages of NMs in enhancing EC sensing potentials. Various types of EC biosensors developed based upon potentiometric, amperometric, and conductometric principles are then examined in detail. The review concludes with insights into the current challenges hindering NGAL sensor development and prospective strategies for advancing their clinical applicability.