A comprehensive review of lithium-ion battery components degradation and operational considerations: a safety perspective

Abstract

As the demand for sustainable energy storage solutions grows, lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) remain at the forefront of modern energy technologies, widely adopted in electric vehicles and energy storage systems. Although they offer high energy densities and reliability, their long-term usage and safety are compromised by complex structural degradation mechanisms and thermal instability, which affect their key components-cathode, anode, and electrolyte-culminating in hazardous events. To comprehensively address these challenges, this review article elaborates on the electrochemical and physicochemical properties of these key components, exploring their structural characteristics, performance in practical applications, and limitations. A thorough understanding of the degradation pathways of the key components along with various strategies to mitigate failure and enhance safety are highlighted. Finally, attention is given to the unique challenges associated with first responder applications with a specific focus on military operations in extreme environments, such as high and subzero temperatures, mechanical shocks, vibrations, and prolonged storage. This review highlights the critical need for advancements in battery design to ensure safety, durability, and long-term usability in demanding environments.