Multi-Functional Adaptive Interfaces for Next-Generation Wearable and Implantable Bioelectronics

Abstract

Healthcare systems are progressively shifting toward long-term, personalized models that rely on continuous physiological monitoring, thereby intensifying the need for advanced bioelectronic technologies. The evolution of bioelectronics can be described in three generations. First-generation systems, constructed from rigid materials, exhibited severe mechanical mismatch that produced interfacial gaps and provoked inflammatory responses when interfaced with soft tissues. Second-generation platforms based on soft, stretchable materials addressed many of these limitations by improving conformality and reducing mechanical stress; however, maintaining stable, long-term attachment to dynamically moving tissues remained a major barrier to clinical translation. Consequently, recent research focused on third-generation bioelectronics that couple intrinsically soft electronic materials with multifunctional, adaptive human–machine interfaces capable of responding to both mechanical and biochemical cues within the body. In this review, we summarize recent advances in such adaptive interfaces, categorized into mechano-adaptive and biophysiologically adaptive modalities. We first examine mechano-adaptive strategies, including shape programmability, injectability, anti-swelling architectures, and self-healing mechanisms, followed by biophysiologically adaptive approaches such as controlled permeability, anti-fibrotic design, tissue adhesion, and biodegradability. We then highlight representative wearable and implantable systems that incorporate these adaptive concepts, and conclude by discussing key challenges and future directions required for advancing these technologies toward stable, long-term clinical use.